Based on Robert Spencer (Did Muhammad Exist?), Tom Holland (Shadow of
the Sword) and Volker Popp (The early history of Islam following inscriptional
and numismatic testimony). Spencer puts Ibn Ishaq's events in italics as
not historical. Tom Holland does not question the historicity of Muhammad
and associated events. In the light of Popp some of Holland's events have
been italicised.
570 | Muhammad born | |
600-700 | Arabic replaces Syriac as spoken language | |
610 | Muhammad has revelation | |
614 | Persians under Khusrow II take Jerusalem | |
622 | 1 | Victory of Byzantines over Persians in Armenia - date of Era of the Arabs |
622 | 1 | Hijra (emigration) from Mecca to Medina |
622 | Constitution of Medina | |
627 | The Battle of the Trench | |
627 | Byzantines defeat Persians at Nineveh | |
628 | The treaty of Hudaibiyah | |
628 | Treaty between Persisans and Byzantines. Persians abandon their posts in Syria. | |
629 | Arabs adopt a calendar without leap months (Hans Jansen) | |
629 | Battle of Muta | |
630 | Romans under Heraclius retake Jerusalem and restore the True Cross | |
632 | Muhammad death | |
632-4 | Abu Bakr caliph | |
634-640 | Doctrina Jabobi - earliest report of Arab prophet, but prophet expects messiah | |
634 | Caliph Umar | |
634 | A "warband of Saracens" defeat as small Roman army led by Sergius, 12 miles east of Gaza. | |
636 | Arabs defeat a Roman army at Yarmouk, later a Persian army at Qadisiya. | |
637 | Sophronius - report of the nature of the Arabs Jerusalem conquest | |
637 | Arabs conquer Syria | |
639 | John I of Antioch colloquy with the Arabian Commander Amr ibn al-As. No mention of the Quran, Islam or Muhammad. | |
639 | Arabs conquer Egypt and Armenia | |
641 | 20 | Coins bearing the name of Muawiya are minted in Darabjird in Persia. |
640s | Christian priest Thomas - possible mention of Muhammad, "tayyaye d-Mhmt", "Arabs of Muhammad" | |
642 | Alexandria falls to Arabs, Romans evacuate Egypt | |
644 | Umar assassinated, Uthman caliph | |
644 | Arabs invade Persia | |
647 | Patriarch of Selucia, Ishoyahb III, refers to Arabic Hagarians | |
647 | 28 | Muawiya referenced at this date by Byzatine historian Theophanes, but written 810-814. |
647-58 | Coin struck in Palestine bears the inscription Muhammad, but the figure depicted is carrying a cross (Spencer) | |
650 | Persian city of Istakr falls to Arabs | |
650s | Caliph Uthman begins to collect the Koran | |
650s | Arabs conquer North Africa | |
651 | Muawiya, then governor of Syria sent a letter to the Byzantine Emperor Constantine. No mention of Muhammad the Quran or Islam | |
653 | Uthman sends Koran to provinces | |
654 | Arabs conquer Cyprus | |
656 | Assassination of Uthman in Medina | |
656 | Ali ibn Abu Talib appointed to succeed Uthman. Ali shifted the capital from Medina to Kufa. (Holland) | |
656 | 38 | First coin bearing inscription "muhammad", from Shirajan (Popp) |
658 | Ali defeats Kharijites | |
659 | Muawiya makes truce with Byzantines (Popp). | |
661 | Muawiya not accepted by Kharjitites and "party of Ali". Spencer- first historical caliph | |
661-680 | Caliph Muawiya - had summer capital in Ta'if, near Mecca (Holland) | |
662 | 41 | Coin bears name Muawiya, in Darajbird, Persia (Title "leader of the protectors", Amir al-mu'minin) |
662 | 42 | Muawiya's inscription, in Greek, on a bath house in Gadara in Palestine starts with a cross and refers to "the year 42 following the Arabs". No mention of the Quran or Islam. (not considered by Holland) |
663 | Muawiya begins annual summer campaign against Byzantines in Asia Minor. | |
670s | Coin depicts Muawiya with cross | |
670 | Armenian Bishop Sebeos portrays a “Mahmet” as a merchant and preacher who defends Jews | |
672 | 52 | Coin bearing inscription muhammad, from Rayy, near Tehran (Popp) |
673 | 53 | Al Zubayr mints coins in Darabjird (Popp) |
674 | 53 | Arabs threaten Constantinople, Muawiya defeated. |
676 | Nestorian synod refers to pagans in Arabia | |
677-8 | 58 | Inscription at dam near Ta'if in Arabia, under Muawiya, refers to the year 58 and to Muawiya as "commander of the faithful". No mention of the Prophet or of Islam.(Popp says 58 is 680) |
678 | 60 | Coin bears his name Abd Al-Malik in Darabjird (reign of Abd al-Malik, Popp) |
679 | Visitor to Jerusalem describes coins with crosses. | |
679 | Muawiya loses power, succeeded by Abd al-Malik (Popp) | |
680 | Yazid succeeds Muawiya (Holland) | |
680 | A non-Muslim Chronicler identifies Muhammad as leader of the "Sons of Ishmael" and refers to the Kaaba in Mecca and identifies it with Abraham. | |
680 | Arabia and Iraq rebel against Yazid. Husayn killed in Karbala (Holland) | |
683 | Umayyads sack Medina, but ibn al-Zubayr escapes and survives | |
683 | 66 | First coin with inscription "mahammad rasul Allah" (Popp) |
684 | Marwan hailed "commander of the faithful". (Holland) | |
685 | Coins minted by ibn Al-Zubair, rival of Umayyad caliphate, proclaim Muhammad as the prophet of Allah | |
685-705 | Caliph Abd al Malik | |
688 | 69 | Inscription on a canal bridge in Egypt refers to the year 69 but no mention of Muhammad, the Quran or Islam. |
686-7 | Iranian coin bears the cross and the word Muhammad. | |
686-7 | Plague and famine | |
689 | Work begins on Dome of the Rock | |
687 | 66 | Earliest coin with mention of MHMT as rasul (apostle, messenger) refering to Jesus. |
690 | Nestorian Christian, John bar Penkaye, refers to Arab tradition of Muhammad who inflicted death upon those who contradicted the tradition | |
690 | John of Nikiou refers to the religion of the Muslims, but in Ethiopic translation for from 1602 | |
691 | 72 | Dome of the Rock completed, Abd al Malik inscribes muhammad as Jesus. (Popp) |
692 | Defeat and death of ibn al-Zubayr, Abd al Malik then controls Arabia | |
693 | 74 | Gold and silver coins with "muhammad rasul" in east of empire |
698 | 77 | Eschatological parousia (second coming) exepcted |
690s | Abd al-Malik, who grew up in Medina, reorients mosques to point south | |
694 | Abd al-Malik goes to Mecca and hails Kaaba as a shrine | |
694 | Al-Hajjaj governor of Iraq | |
696 | First coins minted without images of a sovereign, and bearing the shahada, during Abd al-Malik | |
696 | 75 | Coin from Merv names Abd al-Malik, as Marwan, indicates he was from there (Popp) |
708 | Jacob of Edessa still refers to Mahgraye or emigrants. | |
708 | 87 | Al-Walid mentioned on coins and inscriptions in Damascus |
705-15 | Waild 1, (705-715), inscription on a castle contains no mention of Muhammad. | |
711 | Arabs invade Spain | |
715 | Arab sea-borne assault on Constaninople fails | |
715 | 98 | Coin bearing "muhammad" minted in west Africa |
716 | 98 | Coin bearing al-Andalus in Spain |
730 | John of Damascus details some of the Saracens beliefs rejecting Jesus as the son of God and rejecting the cross as idolatry. He refers to their books including "The woman", "The cow" and "God's she-camel", but does not refer to the Koran | |
735 | Inscription refers to Muhammad's great deeds of Jihad. | |
740 | Romans defeat Arabs at Acroinum | |
741 | First mention of Mecca in a foreign text | |
750 | Abassids defeat and overthrow last Umayyad caliph Marwan | |
751 | 130 | Yazid bn Umar mentined on coin in Rayy |
762 | Abbasids construct new capital: Baghdad. | |
766 | Coin bearing "Musa rasul Allah" | |
770s | Ibn Ishaq colletcs and publishes bioigraphy of Muhammad | |
773 | Ibn Ishaq died | |
788 | 171 | Harun mentioned on coins as ruler |
803 | 185 | Earliest coin from the Hijaz |
810 | Al-Mamun is Hahifat Allah, (God's representative). First use of term Caliph in this sense. | |
812 | 196 | Office of Imam mentioned for the first time |
817 | Al-Mamun names sucessor | |
817 | 201 | First coin minted in Mecca |
820 | 210 | Al-Mamun enters Bagdad |
835 | 218 | End of al-Mamun era - hisiorical ledgends established |